Editing Trebuchet

{{Short description|Siege engine using long arm to throw projectiles}}
{{other uses}}
{{pp-pc}}
[[File:Trebuchet Castelnaud.jpg|thumb|300px|Replica counterweight trebuchets at [[Château de Castelnaud-la-Chapelle|Château de Castelnaud]]]]
[[File:MongolsBesiegingACityInTheMiddleEast13thCentury.jpg|thumb|300px|Counterweight trebuchet used in a siege from the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'', c. 1306-18{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=425}}{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=236}}]]

A '''trebuchet'''{{refn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|r|ɛ|b|ʊ|ʃ|eɪ}} {{respell|TREB|uu-shay}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|r|ɛ|b|ə|ʃ|ɛ|t}} {{respell|TREB|ə-shet}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|r|ɛ|b|j|ʊ|ˈ|ʃ|ɛ|t}} {{respell|TREB|yuu|SHET}};<ref>OED, Random House Unabridged Dictionary</ref> also spelled '''trebucket''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|r|iː|b|ʌ|k|ɪ|t}} {{respell|TREE|buk|it}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|r|ɛ|b|j|ʊ|ˈ|k|ɛ|t}} {{respell|TREB|yuu|KET}}<ref>Random House Unabridged Dictionary</ref>|group="nb"}} ({{lang-fr|trébuchet}}) is a type of [[catapult]]{{sfn|Janin|2014|p=41}} that uses a rotating arm with a sling attached to the tip to launch a projectile. It was a common powerful [[siege engine]] until the advent of [[gunpowder]]. The design of a trebuchet allows it to launch projectiles of greater weights and further distances than that of a traditional catapult.

There are two main types of trebuchet. The first is the ''traction trebuchet'', or [[mangonel]], which uses manpower to swing the arm. It first appeared in China by the 4th century BC. It spread westward, possibly by the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], and was adopted by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Persians]], [[Arabs]], and other neighboring peoples by the sixth to seventh centuries AD.<ref name=PAUL/><ref>{{harvnb|Graff|2016|p=142}} "Another, more specifically Chinese contribution to military technology that may have been carried westward by the Avars is the traction trebuchet. In contrast to the counterweighted trebuchet..."</ref><ref name="purton 2009 33"/>

The later, and often larger and more powerful, '''counterweight trebuchet''', also known as the '''counterpoise trebuchet''', uses a [[counterweight]] to swing the arm. It appeared in both Christian and Muslim lands around the Mediterranean in the 12th century, and was carried back to China by the Mongols in the 13th century.<ref name="fulton 2016 4">{{harvnb|Fulton|2016|pp=4–5}} "Although this is strong evidence that this type of technology was known, and likely employed, in the Levant before the first known use of ‘trebuchet’, there is little consensus among scholars as to when and where the counterweight trebuchet was first developed. Al-Tarsusi’s description and accompanying illustration are far from conclusive proof that this type of engine was developed in the Islamic world. At the siege of Acre in 1189-91, eyewitness sources provide no indication that the artillery employed by either the Muslim garrison or the crusaders was superior."</ref>

==Etymology and terminology==
{{stack|[[File:Roman Onager.jpg|thumb|The [[Onager (weapon)|onager]] was a torsion powered weapon used in Europe from the [[4th century|4th]] until the [[6th century]] AD.]]}}

The origin of the word "trebuchet" is uncertain. [[D. J. Cathcart King|D.J. Cathcart King]] suggests that it is derived from "''trebucher'', to rock or tilt".{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=33}} The numerous forms of the word that appeared during the [[13th century]], including ''trabocco'', ''tribok'', ''tribuclietta'', and ''trubechetum'', have obscured the origin of the term.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=33-34}} In Arabic the counterweight trebuchet was called ''manjaniq maghribi'' or ''majaniq ifranji''.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=37}} In China it was called the ''húihúi pào'' (Muslim trebuchet).{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=221}}

The English word ''trebuchet'' dates to the 14th century (13th century in Anglo-Latin) as "medieval stone-throwing engine of war".<ref name="EO">[https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=trebuchet Etymology Online : ''trebuchet'']</ref> It is borrowed from (Old) French ''trebuchet'' (now ''trébuchet'').<ref name="EO"/>

The French word is from the verbal root of ''trebucher'' (now ''trébucher'') : ''trebuch-'' + diminutive noun suffix ''-et'', ''trebucher'' (10th century) meant "to overthrow, to bring down", then and now "to stumble",<ref name="CNRTL2">[https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/trébucher CNRTL : ''trébucher'' (read online in French)]</ref> maybe earlier "to rock" or "to tilt".{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=33}} It is a compound of (Old) French ''tre(s)-'',<ref name="CNRTL2"/> variant form ''tra-'' (now ''tré-'' / ''tra-'') from Latin ''trans'' expressing "displacement" in that case + Old French ''buc'' "trunk of the body, bulk",<ref name="EO"/><ref name="CNRTL2"/> itself from [[Old Low Franconian]] ''*būk-'' "belly"<ref name="CNRTL2"/> similar to Old High German ''buh'',<ref name="CNRTL2"/> German ''Bauch'' "belly".<ref name="EO"/>

The earliest appearance of the term "trebuchet" dates to the late [[12th century]] and the first attestations of ''trebuchet'' as a siege weapon are from around the year 1200.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=33}}{{sfn|Sayers|2023|p=91}} The 1174-77 edition of ''[[Roman de Renart]]'', an epic about ''Renard the Fox'', describes it as a "trap whose trigger mechanism consists of an assembly of balanced logs" (understood as animal trap by 1375) while the ca. 1200 edition describes it as a "war engine that throws stones to break down walls".<ref name="CNRTL1">[https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/trébuchet CNRTL : ''trébuchet'' (read online in French)]</ref><ref name="RBT">''Dictionnaire historique de la langue française'', sous la direction d'[[Alain Rey]], Editions [[Le Robert]], p. 3738b</ref>{{sfn|Sayers|2023|p=91}} The word ''trabuchellus'' appeared alongside ''manganum'' and ''prederia'' in a document in [[Vicenza]] on {{start date and age|1189|4|6|df=y|paren=y}}. ''Trabucha'' is found a decade later with ''predariae'' at the siege of [[Castelnuovo Bocca d'Adda]] in an account by [[Iohannes Codagnellus]]. It is unclear, however, whether these referred to counterweight trebuchets. Codagnellus did not specify a specific type of engine with the term and even implied that they were "fairly light in subsequent references".{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=33}} Only in the late 1210s do variations of "trebuchet" in sources, described as increasingly powerful machines or utilizing different components, identify more closely with the counterweight trebuchet.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=34-35}} Other terms, such as ''machina maior/magna'', might have also referred to counterweight trebuchets.{{sfn|Fulton|2016a|p=21}}

''Traction trebuchet'' and ''counterweight trebuchet'' are modern terms ([[retronym]]s), not used by contemporary users of the weapons. The term ''traction trebuchet'' was created mainly to distinguish this type of weapon from the ''[[Onager (weapon)|onager]]'', a torsion powered catapult that is often conflated in contemporary sources with the ''mangonel'', which was used as a generic term for any medieval stone throwing artillery. Both the traction and counterweight trebuchets have been called ''mangonel'' at one point or another. Confusion between the onager, mangonel, trebuchet, and other catapult types in contemporary terminology has led some historians today to use the more precise ''traction trebuchet'' instead, with ''counterweight trebuchet'' used to distinguish what was before called simply a ''trebuchet''.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=365}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=410}} Some modern historians use ''mangonel'' to mean exclusively traction trebuchets, while others call traction trebuchets ''traction mangonels'' and counterweight trebuchets ''counterweight mangonels''.{{sfn|Nicolle|2003|p=17}}

== Basic design ==
[[File:Trebuchet2.png|thumb|Side view of counterweight trebuchet, with a detail of the counterweight release mechanism]]

The trebuchet is a [[compound machine]] that makes use of the [[mechanical advantage]] of a [[lever]] to throw a projectile. They are typically large constructions, with the length of the beam as much as {{convert|15|m|-1|sp=us}}, with some purported to be even larger.{{sfn|Saimre|2007|p=66}}

A trebuchet consists primarily of a long beam attached by an [[axle]] suspended high above the ground by a stout frame and base, such that the beam can rotate vertically through a wide arc (typically over 180°). A [[sling (weapon)|sling]] is attached to one end of the beam to hold the projectile. The projectile is thrown when the beam is quickly rotated by applying [[force]] to the opposite end of the beam. The [[mechanical advantage]] is primarily obtained by having the projectile section of the beam much longer than the opposite section where the force is applied – usually four to six times longer.{{sfn|Saimre|2007|p=65}}

[[File:Mangonneau4.png|thumb|left|Example sling-release mechanism that automatically launches projectile at desired point of arm swing]]

The difference between counterweight and traction trebuchets is what force they use. Counterweight trebuchets use gravity; [[potential energy]] is stored by slowly raising an extremely heavy box (typically filled with stones, sand, or lead) attached to the shorter end of the beam (typically on a hinged connection), and releasing it on command.

Traction trebuchets use [[human power]]; on command, men pull ropes attached to the shorter end of the trebuchet beam. The difficulties of coordinating the pull of many men together repeatedly and predictably makes counterweight trebuchets preferable for the larger machines, though they are more complicated to engineer.{{sfn|Saimre|2007|p=64}} The trebuchet had further modifications to allow an increase to its range, by creating a slot for the sling and projectile to sit underneath the trebuchet, enabling the sling to be lengthened and thus extending the range, an alteration in the trajectory, or the release point to be changed.{{sfn|Chevedden|1995|p=3}} Further increasing their complexity is that either [[winch]]es or [[treadwheel]]s, aided by [[block and tackle]], are typically required to raise the more massive counterweights. So while counterweight trebuchets require significantly fewer men to operate than traction trebuchets, they require significantly more time to reload. In a long siege, reload time may not be a critical concern.

When the trebuchet is operated, the force causes [[rotational acceleration]] of the beam around the axle (the [[:wikt:fulcrum|fulcrum]] of the lever). These factors multiply the acceleration transmitted to the throwing portion of the beam and its attached sling. The sling starts rotating with the beam, but rotates farther (typically about 360°) and therefore faster, transmitting this increased speed to the projectile. The length of the sling increases the mechanical advantage, and also changes the [[trajectory]] so that, at the time of release from the sling, the projectile is traveling in the desired [[Ballistics|speed and angle]] to give it the range to hit the target. Adjusting the sling's release point is the primary means of fine-tuning the range, as the rest of the trebuchet's actions are difficult to adjust after construction.

The rotation speed of the throwing beam increases smoothly, starting slow but building up quickly. After the projectile is released, the arm continues to rotate, allowed to smoothly slow down on its own accord and come to rest at the end of the rotation. This is unlike the violent sudden stop inherent in the action of other catapult designs such as the [[Onager (weapon)|onager]], which must absorb most of the launching energy into their own frame, and must be heavily built and reinforced as a result. This key difference makes the trebuchet much more durable, allowing for larger and more powerful machines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Denny |first1=Mark |title=Ingenium : five machines that changed the world |date=2007 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0801898464 |pages=66–70}}</ref>

A trebuchet projectile can be almost anything, even debris, [[Animal carcass|rotting carcasses]], or [[Early thermal weapons|incendiaries]], but is typically a large stone. Dense stone, or even metal, specially worked to be round and smooth, gives the best range and predictability. When attempting to breach enemy walls, it is important to use materials that will not shatter on impact; projectiles were sometimes brought from distant quarries to get the desired properties.{{sfn|Saimre|2007|p=73}}

==History==
[[File:Wheeled trebuchet wjzy.jpg|thumb|Wheeled whirlwind traction trebuchet from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]''{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=2013}}]]

=== Traction trebuchet ===
[[File:Byzantine Trebuchet Skylintzes.jpg|thumb|Sicilian-Byzantine depiction of a traction trebuchet, 12th-13th century{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=420}}]]
[[File:Jindřich VI. obléhá Neapol (1191).jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Naples (1191)]], c. 1196{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=419}}]]
[[File:Perriere from french book of 1250.jpg|thumb|13th-century depiction of a traction trebuchet]]
[[File:Sculpture.pierriere.cathedrale.Saint.Nazaire.Carcassonne.png|thumb|Traction trebuchet depicted at the tomb of [[Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester]], c. 1220{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=420}}]]
{{see also|Chinese siege weapons|Torsion mangonel myth}} 
The traction trebuchet, also referred to as a [[mangonel]] in some sources, originated in ancient China.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradbury|1992|p=265}} "The earliest version of the trebuchet, which worked on the principle of a pivoted beam, that is, the man-powered traction trebuchet, was operated by a crew pulling on ropes, which were attached to the short end of the beam, in other words by using manpower rather than a counterweight. Such machines date back as far as ancient China."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|1995|p=2}} "The trebuchet, invented in China between the fifth and third centuries B.C.E., reached the Mediterranean by the sixth century C.E."</ref><ref name=PAUL>{{harvnb|Chevedden|2000|pp=71, 74}}. "The traction trebuchet, invented by the Chinese sometime before the fourth century B.C."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Graff|2016|p=86}} "With regard to stone-throwers, however, China and the Mediterranean world had followed quite different paths of development. Hellenistic and Roman stone-throwers were torsion machines that derived their propulsive power from twisted fibers or sinews, whereas in China, as we have seen, traction-based stone-throwers (or trebuchets) had been employed since ancient times and torsion-based devices are not attested. There has been much debate about whether even the simplest of the torsion machines, the one-armed “onager,” remained in use into the early Byzantine period. But the dominant trend was toward convergence, with the Byzantines adopting the traction trebuchet as their new stone-thrower (and possibly as early as 587)."</ref>

The first recorded use of traction trebuchets was in ancient China. They were probably used by the [[Mohist]]s as early as 4th century BC; descriptions can be found in the ''[[Mozi (book)|Mozi]]'' (compiled in the 4th century BC).<ref name=PAUL/><ref>{{harvnb|Liang|2006}} "We do however know that the forerunner of the giant catapults of the Medieval era, simple traction catapults based on the lever principle, were already in use during the Warring States period in China in the 5th - 3rd century B.C. Their description appeared in the writings of Mozi, in a Mohist text under a section on Siege Warfare."</ref> According to the ''Mozi'', the traction trebuchet was {{convert|17|ft|abbr=on}} high with {{convert|4|ft|abbr=on}} buried below ground, the fulcrum attached was constructed from the wheels of a cart, the throwing arm was {{convert|30–35|ft|abbr=on}} long with three quarters above the pivot and a quarter below to which the ropes are attached, and the sling {{convert|2.8|ft|abbr=on}} long. The range given for projectiles are {{convert|300|ft|abbr=on}}, {{convert|180|ft|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|120|ft|abbr=on}}. They were used as defensive weapons stationed on walls and sometimes hurled hollowed out logs filled with burning charcoal to destroy enemy siege works.{{sfn|Liang|2006}}{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=207-209}} By the 1st century AD, commentators were interpreting other passages in texts such as the ''[[Zuo zhuan]]'' and ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' as references to the traction trebuchet: "the guai is 'a great arm of wood on which a stone is laid, and this by means of a device [ji] is shot off and so strikes down the enemy.{{'"}}{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=206}} The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' say that "The flying stones weigh 12 catties and by devices [ji] are shot off 300 paces."{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=206}} Traction trebuchets went into decline during the [[Han dynasty]] due to long periods of peace but became a common siege weapon again during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period. They were commonly called stone-throwing machines, thunder carriages, and stone carriages in the following centuries. They were used as ship mounted weapons by 573 for attacking enemy fortifications.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=210}} It seems that during the early 7th century, improvements were made on traction trebuchets, although it is not explicitly stated what. According to a stele in [[Barköl Kazakh Autonomous County|Barkul]] celebrating [[Tang Taizong]]'s conquest of what is now [[Ejin Banner]], the engineer Jiang Xingben made great advancements on trebuchets that were unknown in ancient times. Jiang Xingben participated in the construction of siege engines for Taizong's [[Emperor Taizong's campaign against the Western Regions|campaigns against the Western Regions]].{{sfn|Needham|1994|pp=214–215}} In 617 [[Li Mi (Sui dynasty)]] constructed 300 trebuchets for his assault on [[Luoyang]], in 621 [[Li Shimin]] did the same at Luoyang, and onward into the [[Song dynasty]] when in 1161, trebuchets operated by [[Song dynasty]] soldiers fired bombs of lime and sulphur against the ships of the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] navy during the [[Battle of Caishi]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Needham|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Volume 5, Part 7|year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30358-3|page=166}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Herbert|last=Franke|editor=Denis C. Twitchett|editor2=Herbert Franke|editor3=John King Fairbank|title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24331-5|pages=241–242}}</ref>

{{blockquote|For the trebuchet they use large baulks of wood to make the framework, fixing it on four wheels below. From this there rise up two posts having between them a horizontal bar which carries a single arm so that the top of the machine is like a swape. The arm is arranged as to height, length and size, according to the city [which it is proposed to attack or defend]. At the end of the arm there is a sling which holds the stone or stones, of weight and number depending on the stoutness of the arm. Men [suddenly] pull [ropes attached to the other] end, and so shoot it forth. The carriage framework can be pushed and turned around at will. Alternatively the ends [of the beams of the framework] can be buried in the ground and so used. [But whether you use] the 'Whirlwind' type or the 'Four-footed' type depends upon the circumstances.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=211}}|''Tai bai yin jing'' (太白陰經) by Tang military official Li Quan (李筌), 759 AD}}

The traction trebuchet was adopted by various peoples west of China such as the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Persians]], [[Arabs]], and [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] by the sixth to seventh centuries AD. Some scholars suggest that the Avars carried the traction trebuchet westward while others claim that the Byzantines already possessed knowledge of the traction trebuchet beforehand. Regardless of the vector of transmission, it appeared in the eastern Mediterranean by the late 6th century AD, where it replaced torsion powered siege engines such as the ballista and onager.<ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|1995|p=2}} "Historians had previously assumed that the diffusion of trebuchets westward from China occurred too late to affect the initial phase of the Islamic conquests, from 624 to 656. Recent work by one of us (Chevedden), however, shows that trebuchets reached the eastern Mediterranean by the late 500s, were known in Arabia and were used with great effect by Islamic armies."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Graff|2016|p=141}} "Although neither the role of the Avars in the diffusion of the traction trebuchet and many other items of military technology westward across Eurasia nor the connection between the European Avars and the East Asian Rouran can be established with certainty, the fit is nevertheless a good one. The theory of an East Asian origin for at least a key component of the Avar elite is congruent with the evidence for the arrival of East Asian technologies in western Eurasia in the last decades of the sixth century ce."</ref><ref name="purton 2009 33">{{harvnb|Purton|2009|p=33}} "Neither the precise date, then, nor the route of its arrival can be determined with certainty. What is certain is that the only place known to have developed this form of artillery was China. It is equally possible that the Avars (with their origins in Central Asia), the Byzantines, or the Persians could have been the first to learn of and make use of the weapon in the western world."</ref> The rapid displacement of torsion siege engines was probably due to a combination of reasons. The traction trebuchet is simpler in design, has a faster rate of fire, increased accuracy, and comparable range and power. It was probably also safer than the twisted cords of torsion weapons, "whose bundles of taut sinews stored up huge amounts of energy even in resting state and were prone to catastrophic failure when in use."{{sfn|Peterson|2013|p=409}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=366}}{{sfn|Chevedden|1995|p=2}}{{sfn|Graff|2016|p=141}} At the same time, the late [[Roman Empire]] seems to have fielded "considerably less artillery than its forebears, organised now in separate units, so the weaponry that came into the hands of successor states might have been limited in quantity."{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=364}} Evidence from [[Gaul]] and [[Germania]] suggests there was substantial loss of skills and techniques in artillery further west.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=364}}

According to the ''[[Miracles of Saint Demetrius]]'', probably written around 620 by John, [[Metropolis of Thessaloniki|Archbishop of Thessaloniki]], the Avaro-[[Slavs]] attacked [[Thessaloniki]] in 586 with traction trebuchets. The bombardment lasted for hours, but the operators were inaccurate and most of the shots missed their target. When one stone did reach their target, it "demolished the top of the rampart down to the walkway."{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=30}} The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] adopted the traction trebuchet possibly as early as 587, the [[Sasanian Empire|Persians]] in the early 7th century, and the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Arabs]] in the second half of the 7th century.{{sfn|Graff|2016|p=86, 144}} In 652, the Arabs used trebuchets at the [[siege of Dongola]] in the Sudan.{{sfn|Zurawski|2021}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|pp=45–46}} Like the Chinese, by 653, the Arabs also had ship mounted traction trebuchets.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=47}} The [[Franks]] and [[Saxons]] adopted the weapon in the 8th century.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=367}} The ''[[Vita Hludovici|Life of Louis the Pious]]'' contains the earliest western European reference to mangonels (traction trebuchets) in its account of the [[siege of Tortosa (808–809)]].{{sfn|Noble|2009|p=241 n.73}} In 1173, the [[Republic of Pisa]] tried to capture an island castle with traction trebuchet on galleys.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=291}} Traction trebuchets were also used in India.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=366}}

{{blockquote|The catapult, the account of which has been translated from the Greek several times, was quadrangular, with a wide base but narrowing towards the top, using large iron rollers to which were fixed timber beams "similar to the beams of big houses", having at the back a sling, and at the front thick cables, enabling the arm to be raised and lowered, and which threw "enormous blocks into the air with a terrifying noise".{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=30}}|Peter Purton}}

The traction trebuchet was most efficient as an [[anti-personnel weapon]], used in a supportive position alongside archers and slingers. Most accounts of traction trebuchets describe them as light artillery weapons while actual penetration of defenses was the result of mining or siege towers.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=24}} At the [[Siege of Kamacha]] in 766, Byzantine defenders used wooden cover to protect themselves from the enemy artillery while inflicting casualties with their own stone throwers. [[Michael the Syrian]] noted that at the siege of Balis in 823 it was the defenders that suffered from bombardment rather than the fortifications. At the siege of [[Çakırhüyük, Besni|Kaysum]], [[Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani]] used artillery to damage houses in the town. The [[Sack of Amorium]] in 838 saw the use of traction trebuchets to drive away defenders and destroy wooden defenses. At the siege of [[Marand]] in 848, traction trebuchets were used, "reportedly killing 100 and wounding 400 on each side during the eight-month siege."{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=22}} During the [[Abbasid civil war (865–866)|siege of Baghdad]] in 865, defensive artillery were responsible for repelling an attack on the city gate while traction trebuchets on boats claimed a hundred of the defenders' lives.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=22-23}}

Some exceptionally large and powerful traction trebuchets have been described during the 11th century or later. At the [[Siege of Manzikert (1054)]], the [[Seljuks]]' initial siege artillery was countered by the defenders' own, which shot stones at the besieging machine. In response, the Seljuks constructed another one requiring 400 men to pull and threw stones weighing {{convert|20|kg|abbr=on}}. A breach was created on the first shot but the machine was burnt down by the defenders. According to [[Matthew of Edessa]], this machine weighed {{convert|3,400|kg|abbr=on}} and caused a number of casualties to the city's defenders.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=24}} [[Ibn al-Adim]] describes a traction trebuchet capable of throwing a man in 1089.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=25}} At the siege of [[Hai Prefecture|Haizhou]] in 1161, a traction trebuchet was reported to have had a range of 200 paces (over {{convert|400|m|abbr=on}}).{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=215}}

West of China, the traction trebuchet remained the primary siege engine until the 12th century when it was replaced by the counterweight trebuchet.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=29}} In China the traction trebuchet was the primary siege engine until the counterweight trebuchet was introduced during the [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty]] in the 13th century.<ref name="Citiy of Heavenly Tranquility">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOiGAAAAMAAJ&q=xianyang+foreign+engineers+persia+mangonels+catapults|title=City of heavenly tranquility: Beijing in the history of China|author=Jasper Becker|year=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-0195309973|page=64|access-date=2010-10-28}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="180" heights="180">
File:Five whirlwind trebuchets wjzy.jpg|Five whirlwind trebuchets from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]''{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=213}}
File:Hudunpao-wujingzongyao.jpg|Crouching tiger trebuchet from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]''{{sfn|Liang|2006}}
File:SiJiao Pao-t1.jpg|Sìjiǎo "Four Footed" traction trebuchet from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]''{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=213}}
Image:Songrivership3.jpg|Traction trebuchet on a [[Song Dynasty]] warship from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]{{sfn|Liang|2006}}
File:Liber3.jpg|12th-century depiction of a traction trebuchet (also called a perrier) next to a staff slinger
File:1285 مقذاف.jpg|[[Muslim]] traction trebuchet, 1285{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=235}}
</gallery>

=== Counterweight trebuchet ===
[[File:1187 مقذاف.jpg|thumb|The earliest known depiction of a counterweight trebuchet, by [[Mardi ibn Ali al-Tarsusi]], c. 1187]]

====Origins====
[[File:Fall Of Baghdad (Diez Albums).jpg|thumb|Siege of Baghdad (1258) from the ''Jami' al-tawarikh'', c. 1306-18{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=425}}{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=236}}]]
[[File:Guinevere beseiged in tower - La Mort le Roi Artus (c.1316), f.81v - BL Add MS 10294.jpg|thumb|Counterweight trebuchet in the ''La Mort le Roi Artus'', c. 1316]]

There is little to no consensus as to where and when the counterweight trebuchet, which has been described as the "most powerful weapon of the Middle Ages",{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=382}} was first developed.{{sfn|Fulton|2016a|p=4-5}} The earliest known description and illustration of a counterweight trebuchet comes from a commentary on the conquests of [[Saladin]] by [[Mardi ibn Ali al-Tarsusi]] in 1187.<ref name="Bradbury 1992">{{cite book |last= Bradbury |first= Jim |title= The Medieval Siege |publisher= The Boydell Press |year= 1992 |isbn= 978-0-85115-312-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.historynet.com/weaponry-the-trebuchet.htm |title=Arms and Men: The Trebuchet |newspaper=Historynet |date=5 September 2006 |publisher=Historynet.com |access-date=2016-08-29 }}</ref> However cases for the existence of both European and Muslim counterweight trebuchets prior to 1187 have been made. In 1090, Khalaf ibn Mula'ib threw out a man from the citadel in [[Salamiya]] with a machine and in the early 12th century, Muslim siege engines were able to breach [[Crusades|crusader]] fortifications. David Nicolle argues that these events could have only been possible with the use of counterweight trebuchets.{{sfn|Nicolle|2003|p=16}}

Although al-Tarsusi provided the first description and illustration of a counterweight trebuchet, the text implies that the engine was not new and had previously been built. Al-Tarsusi referred to the counterweight trebuchet as the "Persian" trebuchet whereas the "Frankish" trebuchet was a light traction engine.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=37}}{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=433}} Later during the 13th century, Muslims used ''manjaniq maghribi'' (Western trebuchet) and ''manjaniq ifranji'' (Frankish trebuchet) to refer to counterweight trebuchets.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=37}} Paul E. Chevedden suggests that ''manjaniq maghribi'' was used to describe hinged counterweight engines in contrast to previous fixed or hanging counterweight trebuchets.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=449}} Sometimes counterweight trebuchets are separated into two or three different categories based on how their counterweights are attached. These being fixed, hanging, and hinged counterweights. A fixed counterweight is an intrinsic part of the swinging arm and its trajectory is circular.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=47}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dv4eXvagfgYC&q=hanging+counterweight&pg=PA70 | title=Estonian Journal of Archaeology | year=2006 | publisher=Estonian Academy Publishers }}</ref> Hanging counterweights hang below the arm and drop vertically. Hinged counterweights are attached to the arm by a swinging joint. Some fixed counterweights also had a hinged component. The type described by al-Tarsusi was a hanging counterweight. Writing in 1280, [[Giles of Rome]] claimed that hinged counterweight trebuchets had a greater range than fixed counterweight types.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=438-439}}{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=449}}

Chevedden argues that counterweight trebuchets appeared prior to 1187 in Europe based on what might have been counterweight trebuchets in earlier sources. The 12th-century [[Byzantine]] historian [[Niketas Choniates]] may have been referring to a counterweight trebuchet when he described one equipped with a [[windlass]], which is only useful to counterweight machines, at the siege of Zevgminon in 1165.<ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|2000|p=86}}</ref> However the source for this was written in the 1180s to 1190s and Niketas may have been placing the engine of his own time anachronistically into the past.{{sfn|Fulton|2016a|p=11}} At the [[siege of Nicaea]] in 1097 the Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] reportedly invented new pieces of heavy artillery which deviated from the conventional design and made a deep impression on everyone.<ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|2000|pp=76–86; 110f.}}</ref> Illustrations produced later in 1270 depicted fixed counterweight trebuchets used at the siege.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=442}} Possible references to counterweight trebuchets also appear for the [[Venetian Crusade#Siege of Tyre|second siege of Tyre in 1124]], where the crusaders reportedly made use of "great trebuchets".<ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|2000|p=92}}</ref> However the sources for this siege, [[Fulcher of Chartres]] and [[William of Tyre]], only mention ''machinae'' and ''machinae iaculatoriae'' that were later translated as ''perrieres'' and ''mangoniaux'' in the ''[[Estoire d'Eracles]]''.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=98}} Chevedden argues that given the references to new and better trebuchets that by the 1120–30s, the counterweight trebuchet was being used in a variety of places by different peoples such as the crusader states, the [[Norman Kingdom of Sicily|Normans of Sicily]] and the [[Seljuks]].<ref name="Chevedden 2000, 104f.">{{harvnb|Chevedden|2000|pp=104f.}}</ref>

The earliest solid reference to a "trebuchet" in European sources dates to the siege of [[Castelnuovo Bocca d'Adda]] in 1199. However it is unclear if this referred to counterweight trebuchets since the author did not specify what engine was used and described the machine as fairly light.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=33}} They may have been used in [[Germany]] from around 1205. Only in the late 1210s do references to "trebuchet", describing more powerful engines and different components, more closely align with the features of a counterweight trebuchet. Some of these more powerful engines may have just been traction trebuchets, as one was described being pulled by ten thousand. At the [[Siege of Toulouse (1217–1218)]], ''trabuquets'' were mentioned to have been deployed,{{sfn|Fulton|2016|p=35-36}} but the siege engine depicted at the tomb of [[Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]], who was killed by artillery at the siege, is a traction trebuchet.{{sfn|Fulton|2016|p=380}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jaanmarss.planet.ee/juhendid/Mehaanilised_kaugrelvad_keskajal/andmebaas/Russell%20Miners/htt01.html|title=Historic Traction Trebuchet Illustrations Pt 1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.midi-france.info/medievalwarfare/121343_perriers.htm|title = Medieval Warfare during the Cathar Crusades}}</ref> Though soon after, clear evidence of counterweight machines appeared. According to the ''[[Song of the Albigensian Crusade]]'', the defenders "ran to the ropes and wound the trebuchets", and to shoot the machine, they "then released their ropes."{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=34}} They were used in [[England]] at least by 1217 and in [[Iberia]] shortly after 1218. By the 1230s the counterweight trebuchet was a common item in siege warfare.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=387}} Despite the lack of clearly definable terms in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, it is likely that both Muslims and Europeans already had working knowledge of the counterweight trebuchet beforehand. From the [[First Crusade]] (1096–1099) onward, there does not appear to be any discernible difference in the technology of siege engines employed by Muslim and Frankish forces, and by the [[Third Crusade]] (1189–1192), both sides seemed well acquainted with the enemy's siege weapons, which "appear to have been remarkably similar."{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=36}}<ref name="fulton 2018 405">{{harvnb|Fulton|2018|p=405}} "From the First Crusade onward, it is very difficult to discern any differences, let alone a technological advantage, between the trebuchets employed by Muslim forces and those used by their Frankish counterparts. Even during the siege of Acre (1189-91), when individuals from across Europe and the Middle East were drawn together and encountered people from distant regions and different technological traditions for the first time, their accounts provide no suggestion of an advantage or even difference between the engines employed by the Franks and those of the Muslims.</ref>

====China====
[[File:武備志 茅元儀 明朝 砲 01.jpg|thumb|A Chinese counterweight trebuchet packed for transport, from the ''[[Wubei Zhi]]'', 17th c.{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=223}}]]
Counterweight trebuchets do not appear with certainty in Chinese historical records until about 1268. Prior to 1268, the counterweight trebuchet may have been used in 1232 by the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen Jin]] commander Qiang Shen. Qiang invented a device called the "Arresting Trebuchet" which only needed a few men to work it, and could hurl great stones more than a hundred paces, further than even the strongest traction trebuchet. However no other details on the machine are given. Qiang died the following year and no further references to the Arresting Trebuchet appear.{{sfn|Liang|2006}}{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=218}} The earliest definite mention of the counterweight trebuchet in China was in 1268, when the Mongols laid siege to Fancheng and Xiangyang. After failing to take the twin cities of Fancheng and Xiangyang for several years, collectively known as the [[Battle of Xiangyang|siege of Fancheng and Xiangyang]], the [[Mongol]] army brought in two Persian engineers to build hinged counterweight trebuchets. Known as the Huihui trebuchet (回回砲, where "[[Hui people|huihui]]" is a loose slang referring to any Muslims), or Xiangyang trebuchet (襄陽砲) because they were first encountered in that battle. [[Ismail (mangonel expert)|Ismail]] and [[Al al-Din|Al-aud-Din]] travelled to South China from [[Iraq]] and built trebuchets for the siege.<ref name="Citiy of Heavenly Tranquility"/> Chinese and Muslim engineers operated artillery and siege engines for the Mongol armies.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC&q=chinese+engines+artillery+chinese+muslim+engineers&pg=PA282|title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia|author=René Grousset|year=1970|publisher=Rutgers University Press|edition=reprint|isbn=978-0813513041|page=283|access-date=2010-10-28}}</ref> By 1283, counterweight trebuchets were also used in Southeast Asia by the [[Chams]] against the [[Yuan dynasty]].{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=201}}

{{blockquote|The design of the Muslim trebuchets came originally from the Muslim countries, and they were more powerful than ordinary trebuchets. In the case of the largest ones, the wooden framework stood above a hole in the ground. The projectiles were several feet in diameter, and when they fell to the earth they made a hole three or four feet deep. when [the artillerists] wanted to hurl them to a great range, they added weight [to the counterpoise] and set it further back [on the arm] when they needed only a shorter distance, they set it forward, nearer [the fulcrum].{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=221}}|Zheng Sixiao}}

====Function====
[[File:Siege of Antioch, France, Lyon, Municipal Library, Ms 828 f. 033.jpg|thumb|Counterweight trebuchet, c. 1280]]
[[File:Juda-makabejsky-utok-na-akru-alpska-bible.jpg|thumb|Counterweight trebuchet, 1430]]
While some historians have described the counterweight trebuchet as a type of medieval super weapon, other historians have urged caution in overemphasizing its destructive capability. On the side of the counterweight engine as a medieval military revolution, historians such as Sydney Toy, Paul Chevedden, and Hugh Kennedy consider its power to have caused significant changes in medieval warfare. This line of thought suggests that rams were abandoned due to the effectiveness of the counterweight trebuchet, which was capable of reducing "any fortress to rubble".{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=324}} Accordingly, traditional fortifications became obsolete and had to be improved with new architectural structures to support defensive counterweight trebuchets. In southern [[France]] during the [[Albigensian Crusade]], sieges were a last resort and negotiations for surrender were common. In these instances, trebuchets were used to threaten or bombard enemy fortifications and ensure victory.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Marvin |first=Laurence W. |date=2001 |title=War in the South: A First Look at Siege Warfare in the Albigensian Crusade, 1209–1218 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26013906 |journal=War in History |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=373–395 |jstor=26013906 |issn=0968-3445}}</ref> On the side of caution, historians such as John France, Christopher Marshall, and Michael Fulton emphasize the still considerable difficulty of reducing fortifications with siege artillery. Examples of the failure of siege artillery include the lack of evidence that artillery ever threatened the defenses of [[Kerak Castle]] between 1170 and 1188.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=326}} Marshall maintains that "the methods of attack and defence remained largely the same through the thirteenth century as they had been during the twelfth."{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=327}} Reservations on the counterweight trebuchet's destructive capability were expressed by [[Viollet-le-Duc]], who "asserted that even counterweight-powered artillery could do little more than destroy crenellations, clear defenders from parapets and target the machines of the besieged."{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=328}}

In spite of the evidence regarding increasingly powerful counterweight trebuchets during the 13th century, "it remains an important consideration that not one of these appears to have effected a breach that directly led to the fall of a stronghold."{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=347}} In 1220, [[Al-Mu'azzam Isa]] laid siege to [[Château Pèlerin|Atlit]] with a ''trabuculus'', three ''petrariae'', and four ''mangonelli'' but could not penetrate past the outer wall, which was soft but thick.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=218}} As late as the [[Siege of Acre (1291)]], where the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] fielded 72 or 92 trebuchets, including 14 or 15 counterweight trebuchets and the remaining traction types, they were never able to fulfill a breaching role.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=299}} The Mamluks entered the city by sapping the northeast corner of the outer wall.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=298}} Though stone projectiles of substantial size (~{{convert|66|kg|lb}}) have been found at Acre, located near the site of the siege and likely used by the Mamluks, surviving walls of a 13th-century Montmusard tower are no more than one meter thick.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=297-300}} There is no indication that the thickness of fortress walls increased exponentially rather than a modest increase of {{convert|0.5–1|m|abbr=on}} between the 12th and 13th century.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=334-335}} The [[Templar of Tyre]] described the faster firing traction trebuchets as more dangerous to the defenders than the counterweight ones.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=293-295}} The Song dynasty described countermeasures against counterweight trebuchets that prevented them from damaging towers and houses: "an extraordinary method was invented of neutralising the effects of the enemy's trebuchets. Ropes of rice straw four inches thick and thirty-four feet long were joined together twenty at a time, draped on to the buildings from top to bottom, and covered with [wet] clay. Then neither the incendiary arrows, nor bombs [''huo pao''] from trebuchets, nor even stones of a hundred ''jun'' caused any damage to the towers and houses."{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=225}}

The counterweight trebuchet did not completely replace the traction trebuchet. Despite its greater range, counterweight trebuchets had to be constructed close to the site of the siege unlike traction trebuchets, which were smaller, lighter, cheaper, and easier to take apart and put back together again where necessary.{{sfn|Turnbull|2001|p=33}} The superiority of the counterweight trebuchet was not clear cut. Of this, the [[Hongwu Emperor]] stated in 1388: "The old type of trebuchet was really more convenient. If you have a hundred of those machines, then when you are ready to march, each wooden pole can be carried by only four men. Then when you reach your destination, you encircle the city, set them up, and start shooting!"{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=229}} The traction trebuchet continued to serve as an anti-personnel weapon. The Norwegian text of 1240, ''Speculum regale'', explicitly states this division of functions. Traction trebuchets were to be used for hitting people in undefended areas.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=386}} At the Siege of Acre (1291), both traction and counterweight trebuchets were used. The traction trebuchets provided cover fire while the counterweight trebuchets destroyed the city's fortifications.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=295}} The counterweight-trebuchet could also be used for cover fire and as an anti-personnel weapon. [[James I of Aragon|King James I]] of Aragon employed this as a defensive tactic in many fortified structures and towns which proved effective.<ref name=":4" /> Trebuchets could cause mass casualties due to the destruction of structures. During an assault on Muntcada by King James I, a trebuchet was used to target a tower, destroying the structure and causing the consequential deaths of civilians and livestock.<ref name=":5" /> But typically the counterweight trebuchet was used against battlements such as parapets, other defensive structures, and the lower section of walls due to its greater accuracy and longer range, which was how it was employed by the [[Kingdom of Aragon]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Humphries |first=Paul Douglas |date=1985 |title="Of Arms and Men": Siege and Battle Tactics in the Catalan Grand Chronicles (1208-1387) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1987537 |journal=Military Affairs |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=173–178 |doi=10.2307/1987537 |jstor=1987537 |issn=0026-3931}}</ref>{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=404}}

{{blockquote|Rather than replace traction trebuchets, counterweight trebuchets supplemented them in a different role. Their slower shooting rate and greater mass made them more difficult to reposition, or even yaw, leaving few incentives to employ a small counterweight engine rather than a comparable traction type. Although less accurate, traction trebuchets might be expected to achieve the same result, albeit with more shots, in a similar amount of time. Accordingly, it was only profitable to employ counterweight trebuchets if they were capable of harnessing noticeably more energy, allowing them to throw significantly larger stones or similarly sized stones greater distances.{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=47}}|Michael S. Fulton}}

There is some evidence that the counterweight trebuchet could be transported. Armies employed a magister tormentorum ('master of trebuchets') for the reconstruction of trebuchets after they were deconstructed for transportation to their destination, whether on carts or by ship.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Gareth |date=2013 |title=By hook or by crook: Siege warfare in the fourteenth century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48579015 |journal=Medieval Warfare |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=13–17 |jstor=48579015 |issn=2211-5129}}</ref> They could also be equipped with their own wheels, as shown in two 17th- and 18th-century Chinese illustrations, which are also the only Chinese depictions of counterweight trebuchets on land. According to Liang Jieming, the "illustration shows... its throwing arm disassembled, its counterweight locked with supporting braces, and prepped for transport and not in battle deployment."{{sfn|Liang|2006}} However, according to Joseph Needham, the large tank in the middle was the counterweight, while the bulb at the end of the arm was for adjusting between fixed and swinging counterweights. Both Liang and Needham note that the illustrations are poorly drawn and confusing, leading to mislabeling.{{sfn|Needham|1986|p=223}}

The counterweight and traction trebuchets were phased out around the mid-15th century in favor of gunpowder weapons.{{sfn|Turnbull|2001|p=36}}{{sfn|Purton|2010|p=269}}
<gallery widths="170" heights="180" class="center">
File:CrusadersThrowingHeadsOfMuslimsOverRamparts.jpg|Counterweight trebuchets at the [[siege of Nicaea]] (1097), c. 1270{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=422}}
File:Siege de Nicée (1097).jpg|Counterweight trebuchet at the siege of Nicaea (1097), 1337{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=422}}
File:Mahmud ibn Sebuktegin attacks the rebel fortress (Arg) of Zarang in Sijistan in 1003 AD. From the illuminated manuscript of Rashid ad-Din's Jami al-Tawarikh, written in about 1307. Edinburgh University Library.jpg|[[Mahmud of Ghazni]] attacks the rebel fortress (Arg) of [[Zaranj]] in [[Sijistan]] ([[Nimruz province]]) in 1003 AD, from the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'', c. 1306-18{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=425}}{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=236}}
File:Ms.Thott.290.2º 016v.jpg|15th-century depiction of a counterweight trebuchet
File:Vier Bücher der Rytterschafft p33.tif|16th-century depiction of a counterweight trebuchet
File:Counterweight trebuchet 1726.jpg|Possibly a counterweight trebuchet (however text says cannon) from the Chinese encyclopedia ''[[Gujin Tushu Jicheng]]'', 1726
File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Military Administration - pic062 - 樓船圖.png|Early 18th-century depiction of a Chinese ship armed with three counterweight trebuchets{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=227}}
</gallery>

===Decline of military use===
[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|thumb|Siege of Baghdad (1258), c. 1430{{sfn|Fulton|2018|p=425}}]]
With the introduction of [[gunpowder]], the trebuchet began to lose its place as the siege engine of choice to the [[cannon]]. Trebuchets were still used both at the [[Siege of Burgos (1475)|siege of Burgos]] (1475–1476) and [[siege of Rhodes (1480)]]. One of the last recorded military uses was by [[Hernán Cortés]], at the 1521 [[Fall of Tenochtitlan|siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán]]. Accounts of the attack note that its use was motivated by the limited supply of gunpowder. The attempt was reportedly unsuccessful: the first projectile landed on the trebuchet itself, destroying it.<ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|1995|p=5}}</ref>

In China, the last time trebuchets were seriously considered for military purposes was in 1480. Not much is heard of them afterwards.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=229}}

==Other trebuchets==
[[File:Mangonneau2.png|thumb|Hybrid trebuchet]]
[[File:Couillard-Calmont d olt.jpg|thumb|A couillard]]

=== Hand-trebuchet ===
The hand-trebuchet ({{lang-el|χειρομάγγανον, cheiromanganon}}) was a [[staff sling]] mounted on a pole using a [[lever]] mechanism to propel projectiles. Basically a one-man traction trebuchet, it was used by troops of emperor [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] around 965 to disrupt enemy formations in the open field. It was also mentioned in the [[Tactica of Nikephoros Ouranos|Taktika]] of general [[Nikephoros Ouranos]] (c. 1000), and listed in ''De obsidione toleranda'' (author anonymous) as a form of artillery.<ref>{{harvnb|Chevedden|2000|p=110}}</ref>

In China, the hand-trebuchet (''shoupao'') was invented by Liu Yongxi and presented to the emperor in 1002. It was a pole with a pin at its upper end that acted as a fulcrum for the arm. The pole was used as a shot for fixing in the ground and the user could then throw missiles at the enemy from a static position.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=214}}

===Hybrid trebuchet===
According to Paul E. Chevedden, a hybrid trebuchet existed that used both counterweight and human propulsion. However no illustrations or descriptions of the device exist from the time when they were supposed to have been used. The entire argument for the existence of hybrid trebuchets rests on accounts of increasingly more effective siege weapons. Peter Purton suggests that this was simply because the machines became larger. The earliest depiction of a hybrid trebuchet is dated to 1462, when trebuchets had already become obsolete due to cannons.{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=382}}

===Couillard===
The '''couillard''' is a smaller version of a counterweight trebuchet with a single frame instead of the usual double "A" frames. The counterweight is split into two halves to avoid hitting the center frame.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.thehurricanesracing.com/trebuchet.docx.html|title = Trebuchet Design Factors|date = 19 May 2015|last = Max|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150604144937/http://www.thehurricanesracing.com/trebuchet.docx.html|archive-date = 4 June 2015}}</ref><ref>[https://www.chateau-baux-provence.com/en/siege-engines/couillard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520202959/https://www.chateau-baux-provence.com/en/siege-engines/couillard|date=2022-05-20}} Couillard pictures ... see CHÂTEAU DES BAUX-DE-PROVENCE, France</ref>

==Comparison of different artillery weapons==

===Roman torsion engines===
{| class="wikitable"
! Weapon || Projectile weight: kilograms (pounds) || Range: meters (feet)
|-
| Ballista (reconstruction) || {{convert|0.6|kg|abbr=on}} (stone)/{{convert|0.4|kg|abbr=on}} (lead) || {{convert|180|m|abbr=on}}/{{convert|300|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=362}}
|-
| Ballista (reconstruction) || {{convert|26|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|82|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=362-363}}
|-
| Onager (reconstruction) || || {{convert|130–275|m|abbr=on}} (no damage to walls over {{convert|130|m|abbr=on}}){{sfn|Purton|2009|p=363}}
|-
| Onager (Vitruvius reconstruction) || {{convert|26|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|90|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Fulton|2016|p=12}}
|}

===Chinese trebuchets===
{| class="wikitable"
! Weapon || Crew || Projectile weight: kilograms (pounds) || Range: meters (feet){{sfn|Needham|1994|p=216-217}}
|-
| Whirlwind trebuchet || 50 (rotating) || {{convert|1.8|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|78|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Crouching tiger trebuchet || 70 (rotating) || {{convert|7.25|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|78|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Four footed (one arm) trebuchet || 40 (rotating) || {{convert|1.1|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|78|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Four footed (two arm) trebuchet || 100 (rotating) || {{convert|11.3|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|120|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Four footed (five arm) trebuchet || 157 (rotating) || {{convert|44.5|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|78|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Four footed (seven arm) trebuchet || 250 (rotating) || {{convert|56.7|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|78|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Counterweight trebuchet || 10 || ~{{convert|86|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|200–275|m|abbr=on}}
|}

===Counterweight trebuchets (estimates)===
{| class="wikitable"
! Counterweight: kilograms (pounds) || Projectile weight: kilograms (pounds) || Range: meters (feet){{sfn|Chevedden|2000|p=72}}
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | {{convert|15000|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|60|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|365|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| {{convert|100|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|217|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | {{convert|30000|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|100|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|400|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| {{convert|250|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|160|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| tens of thousands || {{convert|900–1,360|kg|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Chevedden|1995|p=3}} ||
|}

===Siege crossbows===
{| class="wikitable"
! Weapon || Crew || Draw weight: kilograms (pounds) || Range: meters (feet){{sfn|Needham|1994|p=176}}
|-
| Mounted multi-bolt crossbow || || || {{convert|460|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Mounted single-bow crossbow || 4–7 || || {{convert|250–500|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Mounted double-bow crossbow || 10 || || {{convert|350–520|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| Mounted triple-bow crossbow || 20–100 || {{convert|950–1,200|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|460–1,060|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| European siege crossbow (15th century) || || {{convert|545|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|364–420|m|abbr=on}}
|}

===Reconstructed traction trebuchets===
{| class="wikitable"
! Pullers || Projectile weight: kilograms (pounds) || Shots per minute || Max range: meters (feet){{sfn|Fulton|2016|p=424}}
|-
| 6-9 || {{convert|5–15|kg|abbr=on}} || || ~{{convert|100|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| 14 || {{convert|3.1|kg|abbr=on}} || || {{convert|145|m|abbr=on}}
|-
| 20 || {{convert|1.9|kg|abbr=on}} || 4–6 || {{convert|137|m|abbr=on}}
|}

===Reconstructed counterweight trebuchets===
{| class="wikitable"
! Counterweight: kilograms (pounds) || Projectile weight: kilograms (pounds) || Range: meters (feet)
|-
| {{convert|2,000|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|12–15|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|120–168|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=383}}
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | {{convert|4,000|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|8–12|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|445|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=385}}
|-
| {{convert|100|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|185|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=382}}
|-
| rowspan="2" valign="top" | {{convert|6,000|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|55|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|320|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=383}}
|-
| {{convert|100|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Purton|2009|p=385}}
|-
| {{convert|30,000|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|476|kg|abbr=on}} || {{convert|80|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Chevedden|1995|p=3}}
|}

==Modern use==

===Recreation and education===
[[File:Warwick Castle trebuchet.jpg|thumb|A functioning trebuchet at [[Warwick Castle]] (England) based on drawings from the 13th Century]]
[[File:Warwick Castle trebuchet - from the bank.webm|thumb|2012 demonstration of the Warwick Castle trebuchet (launch at 10:30)]]
Most trebuchet use in recent centuries has been for recreational or educational, rather than military purposes. New machines have been constructed and old ones restored by [[living history]] enthusiasts, for [[historical re-enactment]]s, and use in other historical celebrations. As their construction is substantially simpler than modern weapons, trebuchets also serve as the object of engineering challenges.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thelep.org.uk/teachers/events/view/54 |title=Thelep.org.uk |publisher=Thelep.org.uk |date=2008-11-20 |access-date=2010-09-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426052819/http://www.thelep.org.uk/teachers/events/view/54 |archive-date=2012-04-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.engineering.wright.edu/trebuchet/ |title=Wright.edu |publisher=Engineering.wright.edu |access-date=2010-09-12 |archive-date=2010-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100718101359/http://www.engineering.wright.edu/trebuchet/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The trebuchet's technical constructions were lost at the beginning of the 16th century. In 1984, the French engineer Renaud Beffeyte made the first modern reconstruction of a trebuchet, based on documents from 1324.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://armedieval.fr|title=armedieval - le trebuchet et les machines civiles et militaires médiévales}}</ref>

The largest currently-functioning trebuchet in the world is the {{convert|22,000|kg|adj=on}} machine at [[Warwick Castle]], England, constructed in 2005. Based on historical designs, it stands {{convert|18|m}} tall and throws missiles typically 36&nbsp;kg (80&nbsp;lbs) up to {{convert|300|m}}. The trebuchet gained significant interest from numerous news sources when in 2015 a burning missile fired from the siege engine struck and damaged a [[Victorian architecture|Victorian-era]] [[boathouse]] situated at the River Avon close by, inadvertently demonstrating the weapon's power. It is built on the design of a similar trebuchet at [[Middelaldercentret]] in Denmark.<ref name="reconstruct">June 14, 2005 [http://archive.archaeology.org/online/interviews/vemming/index.html Reconstructing Medieval Artillery]. archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved 12 September 2013</ref> In 1989, Middelaldercentret became the first place in the modern era to have a working trebuchet.<ref name="reconstruct"/>

Trebuchets compete in one of the classifications of machines used to hurl pumpkins at the annual [[pumpkin chucking]] contest held in [[Sussex County, Delaware]], U.S. The record-holder in that contest for trebuchets is the Yankee Siege II from [[New Hampshire]], which at the 2013 WCPC Championship tossed a pumpkin 2835.8&nbsp;ft (864.35 metres). The {{convert|51|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall}}, {{convert|55000|lb|adj=on}} trebuchet flings the standard {{convert|8|-|10|lb|adj=on}} pumpkins,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://punkinchunkin.com/current-world-record |title=World Championship Punkin Chunkin – Current World Records |publisher=punkinchunkin.com |access-date=November 20, 2012 |archive-date=November 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115082931/http://www.punkinchunkin.com/current-world-record |url-status=dead }}</ref> specified for all entries in the WCPC competition.

A large trebuchet was tested in late 2017 in [[Belfast]] as part of the set for the television series ''[[Game of Thrones]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://winteriscoming.net/2017/11/06/game-thrones-season-8-filming-trebuchet-tested-titanic-studios/ |title=Season 8 Filming: Watch a trebuchet test at Titanic Studios |date=6 November 2017 |publisher=winteriscoming.net |access-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref>

A large trebuchet based on [[Edward I]]'s "[[Warwolf]]" was constructed for a scene in [[David Mackenzie (director)|David Mackenzie]]'s movie ''[[Outlaw King]]'' (2018){{citation needed|date=January 2022}} about [[Robert the Bruce]], King of Scots. During the film, it hurls an incendiary projectile at [[Stirling Castle]]. It recreates the true story that it took some three months to build and Edward would not let his enemy surrender until he could use it.

In recent years several trebuchets has been created capable of throwing cars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gavin |first=Rachael |title=Experts reveal the science behind 'the world's biggest trebuchet' on You Have Been Warned |url=https://www.nine.com.au/entertainment/latest/worlds-biggest-trebuchet-car-slingshot-you-have-been-warned-show/47bbe22a-3694-45f6-9b29-0d1bc4c5e163 |website=nine.com.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=Jun 24, 2013 |title=Car is launched from trebuchet at Shropshire fundraiser |url=https://www.shropshirestar.com/news/2013/06/24/car-is-launched-from-trebuchet-at-shropshire-fundraiser/ |website=Shropshire Star}}</ref> In the episode "Carnage A Trois" in [[List of The Grand Tour episodes#Series 4 (2019–2021)|series 4]] of ''[[The Grand Tour]]'' the presenters uses a trebuchet to allegedly sling a [[Citroën C3 Pluriel]] from the [[White Cliffs of Dover]] across the [[English Channel]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Douglas |first=Steven |date=March 7, 2022 |title=The Grand Tour: This Is What Happened To The Carnage A Trois Trebuchet |url=https://grandtournation.com/thegrandtour/the-grand-tour-this-is-what-happened-to-the-carnage-a-trois-trebuchet/ |website=Grand Tour Nation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Corey |date=December 21, 2021 |title=''The Grand Tour's'' "Carnage a Trois" Episode Falls Largely Flat |url=https://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2021/12/the-grand-tours-carnage-a-trois-episode-falls-largely-flat/ |website=The Truth About Cars}}</ref> The [[Stamford, Lincolnshire|Stamford]] based [[YouTube personality]] and inventor [[Colin Furze]] created a {{convert|14|m|adj=on}} high trebuchet capable of throwing a [[washing machine]] in December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baillie |first=Maddy |date=27 December 2020 |title=YouTuber Colin Furze creates trebuchet in Stamford |url=https://www.stamfordmercury.co.uk/news/youtuber-creates-giant-catapult-in-stamford-field-9146272/ |website=Stamford Mercury}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hart |first=Matthew |date=Dec 11, 2020 |title=This Massive Homemade Trebuchet Can Launch Washing Machines |url=https://nerdist.com/article/massive-homemade-trebuchet-launches-washing-machines/ |website=[[Nerdist]]}}</ref>

===Developments===
{{primary sources|date=January 2024}}
Although rarely used as a weapon today, trebuchets maintain the interest of professional and hobbyist engineers. One modern technological development, especially for the competitive pumpkin-hurling events, is the "[[Floating arm trebuchet|floating arms]]" design.<ref>{{cite AV media |date=November 24, 2010 |title=Punkin Chunkin 2010- Tired Iron |medium=YouTube |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmZHnqhOHcs | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211195440/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmZHnqhOHcs| archive-date=2013-12-11 | url-status=dead|access-date=March 7, 2015 |format=YouTube |time=1:17 |location=Hancock, NH |publisher=The Science Channel }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2024|reason=Youtube is not a reliable source [[WP:RSPYT]]}} Instead of using the traditional axle fixed to a frame, these devices are mounted on wheels that roll on a track parallel to the ground, with a counterweight that falls directly downward upon release, allowing for greater efficiency by increasing the proportion of energy transferred to the projectile.<ref name=FAT>{{cite web | url = http://www.trebuchet.com/firstfat | title = The Original Floating Arm Trebuchet | website = Trebuchet.com | location = New Braunfels, TX | author = RLT Industries | access-date = May 3, 2010 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100503211719/http://www.trebuchet.com/firstfat | archive-date = May 3, 2010 }}</ref> A more radical design; Jonathan, Orion, and Emmerson Stapleton's "walking arm",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instructables.com/id/Worlds-Simplest-and-Newest-Trebuchet-Walking-Arm-T/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908024023/https://www.instructables.com/id/Worlds-Simplest-and-Newest-Trebuchet-Walking-Arm-T/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-09-08|title=World's Simplest and Newest Trebuchet (Walking Arm Trebuchet) : 17 Steps (with Pictures)|date=2019-09-08|access-date=2019-09-08}}</ref> described as ''"...a stick falling over with a huge counterweight on top of the stick..."''<ref name=vermont>{{Cite web|url=http://vtpumpkinchuckin.blogspot.com/2018/10/results-of-10th-annual-vermont-pumpkin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308001711/http://vtpumpkinchuckin.blogspot.com/2018/10/results-of-10th-annual-vermont-pumpkin.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-03-08|title=Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin' Festival: Results of the 10th annual Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin Festival|last=Jb|date=2018-10-03|website=Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin' Festival|access-date=2019-09-08}}</ref> debuted in 2016<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vtpumpkinchuckin.blogspot.com/2016/09/the-final-results-and-report-for-8th.html|title=Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin' Festival: The Final Results and Report for the 8th Annual Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin' Festival on Sept. 25th, 2016|last=Jb|date=2016-09-29|website=Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin' Festival|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref> and in 2018 won both the Grand Champion Best Design and Middleweight Open Division of the 10th annual Vermont Pumpkin Chuckin Festival.<ref name=vermont/> Another recent development is the "flywheel trebuchet,"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Stanton |first1=Tom |title=Flywheel Trebuchet |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RVT5i4nhIGs | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/RVT5i4nhIGs| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=10 October 2020 |date=Sep 24, 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2024|reason=Youtube is not a reliable source [[WP:RSPYT]]}} in which a flywheel is spun into rapid rotation to build up momentum before release.

===Uses in activism and insurgency===
In 2013, during the [[Syrian civil war]], rebels were filmed using a trebuchet in the [[Battle of Aleppo (2012–2013)|Battle of Aleppo]].<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LmKCWjh-FZM| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140615041507/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LmKCWjh-FZM| archive-date=2014-06-15 | url-status=dead|title=YouTube}}</ref> The trebuchet was used to project explosives at government troops.<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qYdCHtJIho| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/7qYdCHtJIho| archive-date=2021-11-07 | url-status=live|title=Syrian opposition use medieval 'trebuchet' to launch bombs |date=22 February 2013|publisher=Truthloader|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 2014, during the [[2014 Hrushevskoho Street riots|Hrushevskoho street riots]] in Ukraine, rioters used an improvised trebuchet to throw bricks and [[Molotov cocktails]] at the [[Berkut (special police force)|Berkut]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/mikehayes/ukrainian-protesters-built-a-giant-catapult-to-fight-the-rio|title=Ukrainian Protesters Built A Giant Catapult To Fight The Riot Police|publisher=[[BuzzFeed]]|date=20 January 2014|access-date=20 January 2014}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="180" heights="180" class="center">
File:Trebuchet Model, Mongol Empire (19654279900).jpg|Modern recreation of a Mongol-era traction trebuchet, [[Inner Mongolia Museum]]
File:Trebuchet1.png|19th century French drawing of a medieval counterweight trebuchet
File:Nykøbing Falster - kastemaskine, en blide.jpg|Trebuchet at [[Middelaldercentret]], Denmark
File:Kyivtrebuchet.JPG|A modern improvised trebuchet erected by rioters in Hrushevskoho Street, Kiev in 2014, with the counterweight used to operate it visible
File:Trebuchet.jpg|Counterweight trebuchet at [[Les Baux de Provence|Château des Baux]], France
File:Stirling Warwolf Trebuchet.jpg|A scale model of a trebuchet, based on the design of the "[[Warwolf]]"
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Catapult]]
* [[Mangonel]]
* [[Medieval warfare]]
* [[Onager (siege weapon)]]
* [[Siege engine]]

== Notes ==
<references group="nb"/>
{{Clear}}

==References==
<references />

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|2}}
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{{refend}}

== External links == <!-- [[Wikipedia:External links]] guidelines point out that Wikipedia is not a web directory -->
{{Commons category|Trebuchets}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{EB1911 poster|Trébuchet}}
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lostempires/trebuchet/ Secrets of Lost Empires: Medieval Siege (building of and history of trebuchets)], from the [[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]] website
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140117034804/http://www.warwicksiege.co.uk/ Warwick trebuchet]
* [https://philipmcgaw.com/trebuchet-demonstration/ Video Demonstration] of the [[Medieval Siege Society]]'s trebuchet
* [http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2457/3615373610_c4279efb27_b.jpg Caerphilly Castle trebuchet shooting]
* [http://www.redstoneprojects.com/trebuchetstore/largetrebuchetanimated.html Trebuchet animation]
* [http://www.trebuchetplan.com/ Trebuchet plans]
* [http://www.virtualtrebuchet.com/ Virtual Trebuchet]
* {{YouTube|iir0d8WQMCE|Trebuchet de l'AMQ a St-Marcellin}}
* {{YouTube|mD7cqAm_Okg|Slow motion mini trebuchet}}
* {{YouTube|LP3NqHvjfUE|Traction Trebuchet hurling a football}}
* [http://www.supertrebs.com/ Super Trebuchets]{{snd}}A website about trebuchets with particular focus on modern uses and developments.

{{Ancient mechanical artillery and hand-held missile weapons}}
{{Medieval mechanical artillery and hand-held missile weapons}}

[[Category:Artillery of China]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Medieval artillery]]
[[Category:Medieval siege engines]]
[[Category:Obsolete technologies]]
[[Category:Song dynasty]]